The History of the Common Bean

The domestication history of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is vital to understanding the origins of farming.  Beans are one of the three sisters of traditional agricultural cropping methods reported by European colonists in North America: Native Americans wisely intercropped maize, squash, and beans, providing a healthful and environmentally sound way of capitalizing on their various characteristics.   Beans are one of the most important domestic legumes in the world, because of their high concentrations of protein, fiber, and complex carbohydrates. P. vulgaris is by far the most economically important domesticated species of the genus Phaseolus. Domesticate Properties P. vulgaris beans come in an enormous variety of shapes, sizes, and colors, from pinto to pink to black to white. Despite this diversity, wild and domestic beans belong to the same species, as do all of the colorful varieties (landraces) of beans, which are believed to be the result of a mixture of population bottlenecks and purposeful selection. The main difference between wild and cultivated beans is, well, domestic beans are less exciting. There is a significant increase in seed weight, and the seed pods are less likely to shatter than wild forms: but the primary change is a decrease in the  variability of grain size, seed coat thickness and water intake during cooking. Domestic plants are also annuals rather than perennials, a selected trait for reliability. Despite their colorful variety, the domestic bean is much more predictable. Centers Of Domestication Scholarly research indicates that beans were domesticated in two places: the Andes mountains of Peru, and the Lerma-Santiago basin of Mexico. The wild common bean grows today in the Andes and Guatemala: two separate large gene pools of the wild types have been identified, based on the variation in the type of phaseolin (seed protein) in the seed, DNA marker diversity, mitochondrial DNA variation and amplified fragment length polymorphism, and short sequence repeats marker data. The Middle American gene pool extends from Mexico through Central America and into Venezuela; the Andean gene pool is found from southern Peru to northwestern Argentina. The two gene pools diverged some 11,000 years ago. In general, Mesoamerican seeds are small (under 25 grams per 100 seeds) or medium (25-40 gm/100 seeds), with one type of phaseolin, the major seed storage protein of the common bean. The Andean form has much larger seeds (greater than 40 gm/100 seed weight), with a different type phaseolin. Recognized landraces in Mesoamerica include Jalisco in coastal Mexico near Jalisco state; Durango in the central Mexican highlands, which includes pinto, great northern, small red and pink beans; and Mesoamerican, in lowland tropical Central American, which includes black, navy and small white. Andean cultivars include Peruvian, in the Andean highlands of Peru; Chilean in northern Chile and Argentina; and Nueva Granada in Colombia. Andean beans include the commercial forms of dark and light red kidney, white kidney, and cranberry beans. Origins in Mesoamerica In 2012, work by a group of geneticists led by Roberto Papa was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (Bitocchi et al. 2012), making an argument for a Mesoamerican origin of all beans. Papa and colleagues examined the nucleotide diversity for five different genes found in all forms—wild and domesticated, and including examples from the Andes, Mesoamerica and an intermediary location between Peru and Ecuador—and looked at the geographic distribution of the genes. This study suggests that the wild form spread from Mesoamerica, into Ecuador and Columbia and then into the Andes, where a severe bottleneck reduced the gene diversity, at some time before domestication. Domestication later took place in the Andes and in Mesoamerica, independently. The importance of the original location of beans is due to the wild adaptability of the original plant, which allowed it to move into a wide variety of climatic regimes, from the lowland tropics of Mesoamerica into the Andean highlands. Dating the Domestication While the exact date of domestication for beans has not yet been determined, wild landraces have been discovered in archaeological sites dated to 10,000 years ago in Argentina and 7,000 years ago in Mexico. In Mesoamerica, the earliest cultivation of domestic common beans occurred before ~2500 in the Tehuacan valley (at Coxcatlan), 1300 BP in Tamaulipas (at (Romeros and Valenzuelas Caves near Ocampo), 2100 BP in the Oaxaca valley (at Guila Naquitz). Starch grains from Phaseolus were recovered from human teeth from Las Pircas phase sites in Andean Peru dated between ~6970-8210 RCYBP (about 7800-9600 calendar years before the present). Sources Angioi, SA. Beans in Europe: origin and structure of the European landraces of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Rau D, Attene G, et al., National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, September 2010. Bitocchi E, Nanni L, Bellucci E, Rossi M, Giardini A, Spagnoletti Zeuli P, Logozzo G, Stougaard J, McClean P, Attene G et al. 2012. Mesoamerican origin of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is revealed by sequence data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Early Edition. Brown CH, Clement CR, Epps P, Luedeling E, and Wichmann S. 2014. The Paleobiolinguistics of the Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Ethnobiology Letters 5(12):104-115. Kwak, M. Structure of genetic diversity in the two major gene pools of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L., Fabaceae). Gepts P, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, March 2009. Kwak M, Kami JA, and Gepts P. 2009. The Putative Mesoamerican Domestication Center is Located in the Lerma-Santiago Basin of Mexico. Crop Science 49(2):554-563. Mamidi S, Rossi M, Annam D, Moghaddam S, Lee R, Papa R, and McClean P. 2011. Investigation of the domestication of common bean ( Functional Plant Biology 38(12):953-967.Phaseolus vulgaris) using multilocus sequence data. Mensack M, Fitzgerald V, Ryan E, Lewis M, Thompson H, and Brick M. 2010. Evaluation of diversity among common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from two centers of domestication using omics technologies. BMC Genomics 11(1):686. Nanni, L. Nucleotide diversity of a genomic sequence similar to SHATTERPROOF (PvSHP1) in domesticated and wild common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Bitocchi E, Bellucci E, et al., National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, December 2011, Bethesda, MD. Peà ±a-Valdivia CB, Garcà ­a-Nava JR, Aguirre R JR, Ybarra-Moncada MC, and Là ³pez H M. 2011. Variation in Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Grain along a Domestication Gradient. Chemistry Biodiversity 8(12):2211-2225. Piperno DR, and Dillehay TD. 2008. Starch grains on human teeth reveal early broad crop diet in northern Peru. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(50):19622-19627. Scarry, C. Margaret. Crop Husbandry Practices in North America’s Eastern Woodlands. Case Studies in Environmental Archaeology, SpringerLink, 2008. J, Schmutz. A reference genome for common bean and genome-wide analysis of dual domestications. McClean PE2, Mamidi S, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, July 2014, Bethesda, MD. Tuberosa (Editor). Genomics of Plant Genetic Resources. Roberto, Graner, et al., Volume 1, SpringerLink, 2014.

Illegal Immigration Is The United States - 1412 Words

Illegal immigration is the process by which people that are not official citizens of one country cross the borders into said country to live, work or visit. These individuals often do not have the proper clearance to be in the country into which they’ve entered and as such, violate the laws of that country. This has been an ongoing debate in the United States with many individuals entering the country illegally in order to take advantage of the myriad opportunities present in this country. Many come from oppressed parts of the world, and as such, are able to live and work here with more advantages and opportunities than they might have had in their home countries. However, it is the subject of much debate, and political pundits, U.S. citizens and foreign diplomats alike have chimed in on how the U.S. handles illegal immigration and how it should handle this subject moving forward. Illegal immigrants in the U.S. should be treated with more dignity and provided a path to citizen ship, provided that the right sets of circumstances are present. To understand the process of illegal immigration, it is important to understand that this process occurs in an upward moving manner, meaning that overwhelmingly, immigrants almost always migrate from a poor country to one that is richer in terms of resources and opportunities (Feere, 2010). There is often a better life waiting in the new country, thus the reason that so many immigrants are willing to take the risk in moving illegally intoShow MoreRelatedIllegal Immigration And The United States1573 Words   |  7 Pagesmillion illegal immigrants currently residing in the United States furthermore, for the United States economy. The correctional prerequisites against migrants were added to enactment to protect it from feedback that acquittal is absolution without outcome. Immigration makes a difference among everybody, and Congress ought to be doing everything in its energy to make it as simple as feasible for settlers to live and work lawfully what s more, openly in the United State s. The United States is knownRead MoreIllegal Immigration And The United States1315 Words   |  6 PagesFor ages, the United States has seemed to be the country where people seek to move to for a better life. The United States was built on immigrants. People have always migrated to the United States both legally and illegally. The main problem the country has face with immigrants is the amount that trespass the border illegally. Illegal immigration is the unlawful act of crossing a national border(Illegal Immigration Pros and Cons). The illegal immigrant population keeps growing at an annual averageRead MoreIllegal Immigration And The United States969 Words   |  4 PagesAmerican businessman, politician, television personality, and author, is the presumptive of the y for president of the United States in 2016having won the most state primaries and caucuses and delegates to the 2016 Republican National Convention. Trump’s positions in opposition to illegal immigration, various free trade agreements that he believes are unfair, and most military interventionism have earned him particular support among blue-collar voters and voters without college degrees. Many of hisRead MoreIllegal Immigration And The United States1486 Words   |  6 PagesIllegal immigration has been an issue in the United States for a long time so the issues that come with it should not be a surprise. America was established on the basis of newcomers settling here from abroad. Recently though, thousands of illegal immigrants have come into the U.S. through either the Mexico border, the Pacific Ocean, or the Gulf of Mexico which has created a new an unanticipated issue for the U.S., in the past immigrants came from Europe and passed through the Ellis Island stationRead MoreIllegal Immigration Is The United States1805 Words   |  8 PagesIllegal immigration is the migration of people across national borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the destination country. Some c ountries have millions of illegal immigrants. Immigration, including illegal immigration, is overwhelmingly upward, from a poorer to a richer country. The easy definition of an undocumented immigrant is someone who was not born in the United States and therefore has no legal right to be or remain in the United States. Not all undocumented immigrantsRead MoreIllegal Immigration : The United States1876 Words   |  8 PagesIllegal Immigration Due to the economic benefits of immigrant labor, the dangers of central American countries, and the basic human rights of noncitizens, the US government must grant amnesty to undocumented immigrants. Illegal immigration has become a rising issue in the US over the past few years, and it will continue to heat up coming into this year s presidential election. This issue is also very present in the local community due to it’s diversity and large Hispanic population. GenerallyRead MoreIllegal Immigration in the United States1864 Words   |  8 PagesIllegal Immigration In The United States: A Controversial Debate Illegal immigration is an on-going issue, which is of much importance in the United States today. It has been overlooked for many years, however it has reached a point where it can no longer be ignored. Most of the illegal immigrants, 54% to be exact, come through the Mexican border. (Hayes 5) Since the early 1980’s, the number of illegal Mexican immigrants has risen at an incredible rate, causing the United States government to takeRead MoreIllegal Immigration in the United States Essay2094 Words   |  9 PagesIllegal Immigration in the United States Illegal Immigration in the United States The United States (US) has always been viewed as the land of opportunity because it is the only true free country in the world. This being the case people have been fighting their way into the country for decades. However, it is becoming more and more of a problem each decade that passes. With the United States border being so close to Mexico it is now seeing the highest population of illegal immigrants toRead MoreDeportation: Immigration to the United States and Illegal Alien2373 Words   |  10 Pagesadvance because of the way the immigration process works. However, one thing we all had in mind, was to see the light of a different country, see different faces and hopefully find ways to stay. Once the airplane took off, words was already spread all over the office of Haiti air in Florida that the airplane left Haiti with more than 30 Haitian illegal on board. The first few 2 hours spent at the arrival office was like a discovery of a new world for every single illegal in that group. This was oneRead MoreIllegal Immigration And Immigration In The United States1091 Words   |  5 Pagesarrest persons for immigration enforcement purposes. (De Leon, K) The new legislation, created by California Senate President Kevin de Leon, officially makes the state of California a â€Å"sanctuary state†. Previously, de Leon determined that Donald Trump is a racist because of his positions on immigration; most notably, Trump’s attempt to defund cities that considered themselves sanctuaries. In a debate that is becoming increasingly more polarized, Brown sought to protect illegal immigrants against

Philosophy Moral Theory

Question: Write about the Moral Theory forPhilosophy. Answer: Introduction The word theory is a Greek verb which means to contemplate. Scholars have not agreed on some fine details about its definition but they seem to be having an understanding on its basic definition. They suggest that it is an explanationof phenomena considering how it relates with various factors in context to describe or foretell happenings. Demystifying the term further,(Hegel, Houlgate 2008)explains this complex principle as a cluster of interconnected simplifications illustrating new findings which can be simplified to give a description or foretell a phenomenon. There are various theories that attempt to explain the existence of various phenomena. This piece of work will focus onnormative theories. These theories are studied under the branch of ethics called normative ethics. This is the branch that studies ethical action. It deals with a group of questions that come up when determining how an individual should behave in a moral way. The most classical theories in this category would be the utilitarianism, Ethical Egoism, Kantian, Social Contract and Virtue theories. TheUtilitarianism and Kantian theories will form the basis of this piece of work. The society is composed of people of varying characters. There are those who are out- going, others conservative, attention seekers, those who want to just be heard and never seen. This is to mean that a system to bring stability should be improvised. Certain standards to govern the sanity of the society need to be put in place. This calls for endorsement of correct moralsaiming at ensuring that all God's creatures live together in harmony.To ensure sanity of the society, (Hinman 2014) emphasizes on the results and not just the nice intents. To begin with, utilitarianism is a philosophy in which upholds the pleasure of the largest population of a community is taken as the best way out. This principle an act as correct if the end results brings pleasure. It further suggests that human beings ought to act on that which brings the highest inner value to all human beings. Additionally, a connection ofa behavior with a joyful and unjoyful consequence is determined by circumstance.Mill emphasizes that there is no moral principle or absolute standard necessary under this ethical principle. This theory was first propounded by two scholars,John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and another English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Bentham, who was the second proponent of this theory, supposed that people ought to intensify the total amount of pleasure in the universe, (Durant 1926). Pleasure in this context refers to that awesome feeling that is felt when a state of deficiency is replaced by satisfaction. They suggested that the moral worth of an actis examined by the input to general use in attaining the highest level of pleasure among human beings. This is to mean that Millers Principle begins with the internal pleasure that is considered valuable. The aim of this particular theory is to offer a commanding revelation of moral life, one that has a possibility of reducingor eliminating disagreement. This theory is the morally demanding principle which requires that an individual puts aside his own selfish interest for the sake of the majority. It also demands that one does the most to maximize the utility. In regard to this theory, G.E Moore, emphasized the need to uphold values such as knowledge, justice, freedom and beauty. He proposed that the world would definitely be an enhanced place if these values were upheld. For him, this would ensure the greater good of the society at large. Utilitarianism can either be ACT or RULE. When making a decision based on this theory, Act Utilitarianism would factor in the consequences of every act and take into consideration utility every time it performed. Rule utility on the other hand would look at results of individuals following a specific rule and decided the repercussions of adopting it or leaving it out. Kantian theory was propounded by a German scholar Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). He was among the strong opponent of Utilitarianism. The theory suggests all people should follow a given standard .He adds that this is an ethical set typically and is not different depending on the specific conditions. He further adds that an action is morally acceptable it is of benefit to the whole universe. Immanuel does not focus on the majority of the population concerned; he takes into consideration the entire population unlike Miller who says that an action is right when it benefits the majority of the people in the population. Kant insists on a given set standard of behavior. Miller on the other side has no defined set standard of behavior. The correct standard of behavior is determined by the situation. Kants morality postulates thepresence of sensible persons. He believes ina society of independent, balancedindividuals have self-worth and internal worth, and is taken to be absolutely in charge of the decisions in the making the general law. For Kant, there are certain types of actions that by principle are absolutely uncalled for and by standards are condemned for being wrong. These kinds of actions include murder, theft, lying, corruption which has become rampant in most institutions. Kant is categorical that whether or not these actions or activities bring happiness to the greater populations, the principle governing Kantian theory categorically puts them as wrong and prohibited. The guiding questions to making an ethical decision under Kants normative theory is: Would I purposefully want everyone to behave as I wish to behave? If the answer is NO, then that particular action should not be undertaken. The second question to consider when dealing with the Kantian theory would be whether or not ones behavior respects the objectives of the people other than an individuals own selfish needs. If the answer is NO, then that action would not be appropriate for that given situation. Utilitarianism and Kantian theories have over the years been used to explain behavior. They have on numerous occasions been used to determine how to behave in a given situation. They help to determine the ethics. (David Resnik 2015) ethics are the norms of conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. These two theories have different ways of determining whether an action done is correct or wrong. They give a basis on how to determine what is ethical in a given situation. At any one given time, a situation may occur and the determinants of the correct decision have to take into consideration which of the Normative theories to use to benefit to the larger population. This however does not mean that these theories exist in isolation. Though they have huge variations and weakness, they complement each other. The benefits of one given theory may be the demerits of the other, but if the two are used in unison then the outcome is for the greater good of the society. The scenario below will be applied to practically give an understanding of the two normative theories. It is during the December festivities and the entire country is in a celebratory mood. This includes a lot of eating and making merry. At this moment, a widower who has a kid looks at the kid and is guilty that he cannot offer him food let alone the many gifts to be opened on Boxing Day. He has been ill and has therefore nothing. This man hails from a background of abject. He is feeling sickly, but has to make an effort to give to his child on this big day. He had been very observant and tactic. He spotted a hen that roams around and decided today was the day to go harvest it. Apparently the hen belongs to a family that is filthy rich and might not take note that one of their chicken are missing. So this day, he comes back and makes that special meal that he shares with his son. In the above case scenario, we would find instances where either of the two theories would be used to fill in the portion of the other so as to make the most appropriate moral or ethical judgment. In this case, Kantian theory whose fundamental rational principle is the categorical imperative, suggests that one ought to behave in spite of their goals but considering what everyone else would consider right. Kant is categorical in his argument, in the above instance; he would judge the situation as wrong and unacceptable code of conduct because first and foremost, the man stole. Even taking into consideration that this man stole the chicken from a filthy rich family, bottom-line is that taking what does not belong to you, is stealing and judging by Kants categorical imperative, this mans actions are unacceptable and therefore punishable by the relevant authorities. If Millers theory is applied in this case, it would consider that the man who stole the chicken stole from a filthy rich family to as to feed his child who perhaps had not been eaten for the past few days. In this situation, there are three parties: the owner of the chicken, the dad(thief) and the hungry child. Utilitarian theory in this case would not find the actions of the Thief in question as unacceptable. This is because the theory looks out for the joy and delight of the largest number. Utilitarianism theory would look at the consequences of stealing the chicken. It would take into consideration that these children have not had a meal for the past couple of days and the father stole just a single chicken which might go unnoticed. Considering the rule Utilitarianism, and having Kantian theory at the back of the mind, it is wrong to steal. However, Utilitarianism would take into consideration that this chicken might have been hit and died in other circumstances. It would therefore commend the dad for rescuing it and utilizing it to the advantage of his child. His action would be justifies even if the Act Utilitarianism was to be considered. From the above scenario, it is clear that the two theories can be used to fill up the missing part of each other. This is because the society needs to be stable to prosper, The rich require the poor and vice versa. If this does not happen then the society is unbalanced and so many problems face such a society and chances of development diminish. Combining the use of these two theories would mean that the society is called out to share. Those with surplus ought to be generous; they should not throw away food. Those not financially privileged should also make effort to see that at least they are able to provide something. Then this kind of cooperation would ensure continued development of a society. It would mean stability not because there are no moral issues but because people understand the essence of each and every one and that for growth, all people are required to do a collective job. There is progress in unity; there are also better moral standards in making judgment through considering more than one theory to make the right judgment for a given situation. References Brody, Baruch A. 1988. Moral Theory and Moral Judgments in Medical EthicsDordrecht:SpringerNetherlands. https://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=3102991. Buckingham, Will. 2011. The philosophy book. London: DK Pub. https://www.credoreference.com/book/dkphilbook. Byrne, Peter. 1999. "Aretaic Moral Theory". Donagan, Alan. 1979. The theory of morality. Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Press. Fulford, K. W. M. 1989. Moral theory and medical practiceCambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hegel,Houlgate. 2008. Outlines Of The Philosophy Of Right. Oxford [UK]: Oxford University Press. Hinman, Lawrence M. 2013. Ethics: a pluralistic approach to moral theory. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Pub Co. Jacobs, Jonathan A. 2002. Dimensions of moral theory: an introduction to metaethics and moral psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. https://site.ebrary.com/id/10233000. Jones, Gerald, Daniel Cardinal, and Hayward. 2006. Moral philosophy: a guide to ethical theory. London: Hodder Murray. Resnik, David B. "What is Ethics in Research Why is it Important?" In ideas. 2015. Paley, William. 2002. The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. Indianapolis, Ind.: Liberty Fund. Sullivan, Roger J. 1989. Immanuel Kant's moral theory.Cambridge[England]: Cambridge University Press. Timmons, Mark. 2013. Moral theory: an introduction.